READING AND LEARNING DISABILITIES:
A RESOURCE GUIDE

#FS17

(Update, January 1995)

A publication of...
NICHCY
National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20013
E-Mail: nichcy@aed.org
URL: http://www.nichcy.org
1-800-695-0285 (Voice/TT)

___________________

This information is copyright free, unless otherwise indicated. Readers are
encouraged to copy and share it, but please credit the National Information
Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities (NICHCY).
___________________

The National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities
(NICHCY) is pleased to respond to your request for information about the
problems many children, youth, and adults experience with learning -- in
particular, with learning to read.

Having difficulty with reading is by no means unusual. Millions of people
in the United States have trouble reading. Some may not be able to read at
all, while others have basic reading skills but might be considered "slow
readers." It is useful to know that problems with reading are often
accompanied by problems with writing, listening, or speaking. Each person
having trouble in any or all of these areas should know that help is
available.

There are many reasons why a person might have difficulty in developing
reading skills. One of the most common reasons is that the person has what
is known as a learning disability. Dyslexia is one such learning
disability. There are also many other types of learning disabilities that
can cause problems with learning to read or learning in general. These are
described later in this guide.

Not all troubles with reading are caused by learning disabilities. It is
important to determine what is causing the problem. Some causes other than
learning disabilities are poor vision or hearing, emotional disturbance, or
mental retardation. A person having trouble with reading should talk with
specialists in the reading field and receive a thorough assessment. Through
assessment, the nature of the reading problem can be determined. Then
action can be taken to help the person overcome his or her specific
problem.

This information brief has been developed with two major purposes in mind.
These are:

1) to describe some of the most common learning disabilities that can cause
reading problems; and

2) to put you in touch with organizations that can provide you with help to
fit your needs.

This paper is organized into sections as follows:

(1) a look at learning disabilities in children and youth;
(2) suggestions for parents in how to help their school-age children learn;
(3) considerations for adults with reading and learning problems, including
a description of the diagnostic process for adults; and
(4) book and organizational resources for: parents of school-age children
with learning disabilities; adults with learning disabilities; and
educators or other service providers who work with individuals with reading
problems and/or learning disabilities.

We hope that you will take advantage of the expertise and assistance
offered by the many excellent organizations we have listed throughout this
document. They can help you to work with and overcome your reading
problems. If you find you have need of additional information or
assistance, please feel free to contact NICHCY again.
_____________________

A LOOK AT LEARNING DISABILITIES IN CHILDREN AND YOUTH
by
Larry B. Silver, M.D.
Reprinted with permission from the Learning Disability Association of
Montgomery County, Inc., in Maryland

Children and adolescents perform poorly in school for various reasons. Some
have emotional or family problems; for others, the source of trouble is the
community, the school, or peers; and some are simply below average
intellectually. But 10 to 20 percent have a neurologically-based disorder
of the type called a learning disability. According to the definition used
by the federal government, these children are of at least average
intelligence (many are far above average), and their academic problems are
not caused by an emotional disturbance, by social or cultural conditions,
or by a primary visual, hearing, or motor disability. Instead, the reason
for their learning problems seems to be that their brains are "wired" in a
way slightly different from the average person s. About 20 percent of
children with learning disabilities also have a related problem, attention
deficit disorder (ADD) or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Its symptoms include hyperactivity, distractibility, and impulsiveness. ADD
or ADHD must be evaluated and treated separately from the learning
disability.

Learning disabilities are lifelong conditions that may require special
understanding and help throughout grade school, high school, and beyond.
They are also life disabilities that have important effects outside of the
classroom, interfering not only with academic work but also with children's
games, daily activities, and even friendships. Therefore, help for these
children means more than classroom special education.

Types of Learning Disabilities

By the late 1960s, the present model of learning disabilities was
established. This model distinguishes four stages of information processing
used in learning: input, integration, memory, and output. Input is the
process of recording in the brain information that comes from the senses.
Integration is the process of interpreting this information. Memory is its
storage for later retrieval. Output of information is achieved through
language or motor (muscular) activity. Learning disabilities can be
classified by their effects at one or more of these stages. Each child has
individual strengths and weaknesses at each stage.

Input. The first major type of problem at the input stage is a visual
perception disability. Some students have difficulty in recognizing the
position and shape of what they see. Letters may be reversed or rotated;
for example, the letters d, b, p, q, and g might be confused. The child
might also have difficulty distinguishing a significant form from its
background. People with this disability often have reading problems. They
may jump over words, read the same line twice, or skip lines. Other
students have poor depth perception or poor distance judgement. They might
bump into things, fall over chairs, or knock over drinks.

The other major input disability is in auditory perception. Students may
have difficulty understanding because they do not distinguish subtle
differences in sounds. They confuse words and phrases that sound alike --
or example, "blue" with "blow" or "ball" with "bell." Some children find it
hard to pick out an auditory figure from its background; they may not
respond to the sound of a parent's or teacher's voice, and it may seem that
they are not listening or paying attention. Others process sound slowly and
therefore cannot keep up with the flow of conversation, inside or outside
the classroom. Suppose a parent says, "It's getting late. Go upstairs, wash
your face, and get into your pajamas. Then come back down for a snack." A
child with this disability might hear only the first part and stay
upstairs.

Integration. Integration disabilities take several forms, corresponding to
the three stages of sequencing, abstraction, and organization.

A student with a sequencing disability might recount a story by starting in
the middle, going to the beginning, and then proceeding to the end. The
child might also reverse the order of letters in words, seeing "dog" and
reading "god." Such children are often unable to use single units of a
memorized sequence correctly. If asked what comes after Wednesday, they
have to start counting from Sunday to get the answer. In using a
dictionary, they must start with "A" each time.

The second type of integration disability involves abstraction. Students
with this problem have difficulty in inferring meaning. They may read a
story but not be able to generalize from it. They may confuse different
meanings of the same word used in different ways. They find it difficult to
understand jokes, puns, or idioms.

Once recorded, sequenced, and understood, information must be organized --
integrated into a constant flow and related to what has previously been
learned. Students with an organization disability find it difficult to make
bits of information cohere into concepts. They may learn a series of facts
without being able to answer general questions that require the use of
these facts. Their lives in and outside of the classroom reflect this
disorganization.

Memory. Disabilities also develop at the third stage of information
processing, memory. Short-term memory retains information briefly while we
attend to it or concentrate upon it. For example, most of us can retain the
10 digits of a long distance telephone number long enough to dial, but we
forget it if we are interrupted. When information is repeated often enough,
it enters long-term memory, where it is stored and can be retrieved later.
Most memory disabilities affect short-term memory only; students with these
disabilities need many more repetitions than usual to retain information.

Output. At the fourth stage, output, there are both language and motor
disabilities. Language disabilities almost always involve what is called
"demand language" rather than spontaneous language. Spontaneous language
occurs when we initiate speaking -- select the subject, organize our
thoughts, and find the correct words before opening our mouths. Demand
language occurs when someone else creates the circumstances in which
communication is required. A question is asked, and we must simultaneously
organize our thoughts, find the right words, and answer. A child with a
language disability may speak normally when initiating conversation but
respond hesitantly in demand situations -- pause, ask for the question to
be repeated, give a confused answer, or fail to find the right words.

Motor disabilities are of two types: poor coordination of large muscle
groups, which is called gross motor disability; and poor coordination of
small muscle groups, which is called fine motor disability. Gross motor
disabilities make children clumsy. They stumble, fall, and bump into
things; they may have difficulty in running, climbing, riding a bicycle,
buttoning shirts, or tying shoelaces. The most common type of fine motor
disability is difficulty in coordinating the muscles needed for writing.
Children with this problem write slowly, and their handwriting is often
unreadable. They may also make spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors.

Detecting a Learning Disability in Children

There are several early clues to the presence of a learning disability. In
preschool children we look for failure to use language in communication by
age three, or inadequate motor skills (buttoning, tying, climbing) by age
five. In school-age children, we observe whether they are learning the
skills appropriate to their grade. Schools and families should always
consider the possibility of a learning disability before assuming that a
child who has been doing poorly in school is lazy or emotionally disturbed.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Public Law (P.L.)
102-119 formerly known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act
(EHA), P.L. 94-142 requires public school systems to evaluate children who
are at risk for a learning disability. Evaluations can also be performed by
professionals in private practice, beginning with family doctors. Attention
deficit disorder (ADD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
and other problems should always be considered as well and evaluated by
qualified professionals with expertise with these conditions. It is
important to distinguish between emotional, social, and family problems
that are causes and those that are consequences of academic difficulties,
because they require different treatments.

The psychological assessment may include a neuropsychological or a clinical
psychological evaluation. The intelligence of the child should be
determined to learn whether the child is performing below potential.
Discrepancies in performance between different sections of the IQ
(intelligence quotient) test will help to clarify learning strengths and
weaknesses. Other tests may be used to assess perception, cognition,
memory, and language abilities. Current academic skills are judged by
achievement tests. Both IQ and achievement tests help to clarify
discrepancies between potential and actual ability. There are also specific
tests that help to uncover learning disabilities. A speech pathologist,
occupational therapist, or other professional may contribute further
information, as can parents.

Treatment of Learning Disabilities in Children

Special education is the treatment of choice for learning disabilities in
school. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act requires that the
school, in conjunction with the parents and relevant professionals, develop
an individualized education plan (IEP) for each student with learning
disabilities. This plan is revised every year to take into account each
eligible student's present skills and learning disabilities and abilities.
The specific instruction students receive will vary depending upon their
needs and capabilities. Some students attend special education classes full
time. Others spend most of their time in a regular class and go to a
resource room for part of each day, or spend most of the day in special
education and the rest in a regular class. The regular classroom teacher
must build on the child's strengths while helping to compensate for
weaknesses. The special education teacher consults with the classroom
teacher and provides specific interventions, called academic therapy, to
overcome or compensate for learning disabilities. Some children need
remedial work to learn basic skills such as reading, writing, and
arithmetic. Others also need special intervention to fill gaps; for
example, students might have difficulty writing a composition in high
school because they did not learn punctuation in an earlier grade.
Strategies for learning appropriate to a given student's strengths and
weaknesses can be taught. Some children need specific related services: a
notetaker (for a student with a fine motor disability), word processors,
laptop computers, books on tape, or extra time for tests. The IDEA requires
schools to provide these special education and related services at no cost
to families.

Parents must also try to understand the nature of their children's
problems. Like classroom teachers, they must build on the child's strengths
while compensating for or adjusting to the weaknesses without exposing them
unnecessarily. A child with a visual motor disability, for example, might
find it hard to load a dishwasher but could carry out the trash. The same
child might have difficulty catching or throwing a ball, but no trouble
swimming. Parents must think ahead about these matters to minimize their
child's stress and to maximize his or her chance to experience success,
make friends, and develop self-esteem. Treatment that affects only school
work will not succeed, because learning disabilities are life disabilities.

It is essential to recognize learning disabilities and related problems as
early as possible. Without recognition and help, children may become
increasingly frustrated and distressed as they persistently fail. By the
time they reach high school, they may give up. On the other hand, children
whose problems are recognized early and treated appropriately can overcome
or learn to compensate for their disabilities.

(NICHCY thanks Dr. Larry Silver and the Learning Disability Association of
Montgomery County, Inc., for permission to reprint Dr. Silver's article,
which appeared in their November 1991 newsletter. The Learning Disability
Association of Montgomery County, Inc., is a local chapter of the Learning
Disabilities Association of America. You can contact LDAMC, Inc. by writing
P.O. Box 623, Rockville, MD 20848-0623.)
_____________________________________________

HELPING YOUR CHILD LEARN:
SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR PARENTS

If you suspect that your child is having trouble learning to read, or
trouble with learning in general, there is help available. For parents of
school-age children, the first source of help should be the public school
serving your area. Contact your child's school principal, express your
concerns, and ask to have your child evaluated. The school system is
required by federal and state law to evaluate your child at no cost to you
or your family.

The results of the evaluation will show whether or not your child has a
problem with reading or learning and, if so, the nature of the problem. You
may be told that your child has dyslexia or another type of learning
disability. If the evaluation shows that your child does have a learning
disability, the school is required by federal and state law to provide
special education for your child -- also at no cost to you or your family.

Suppose, however, that the results of the evaluation show that your child
does not have a disability. In this case, there are a number of actions you
can take. If you think that the school's evaluation of your child was not
appropriate -- for example, only one test was administered or the
evaluation was based solely upon observation of your child -- you can ask
the school system to pay for what is known as an Independent Educational
Evaluation (IEE). There are usually strict guidelines for obtaining an IEE
at the school's expense. Ask the school about its IEE policy. Of course,
you can always have your child evaluated independently and pay for the
evaluation yourself. Whether the school pays for the IEE or whether you do,
the results of this second evaluation must be taken into account in
determining whether or not your child has a disability and, thus, is
eligible for special education services through the school.

If evaluation results still indicate that your child's problems in learning
to read are not caused by a disability, your child will not be eligible for
special education services through the public school. However, most schools
have services available for students who are having trouble reading. Your
child may be enrolled in a remedial reading program or work with a reading
resource teacher to improve his or her skills. You may also wish to contact
some of the organizations dealing with literacy (see Organizational
Resources at the end of this Briefing Paper).

Suppose, however, that the results of testing show that your child does
have a learning disability. In this case, your child will be eligible to
receive special education services. Parents and school personnel then meet
to discuss the results of the evaluation and to develop what is known as an
Individualized Education Program (IEP). The IEP will describe the level at
which your child is currently performing, as well as identify the specific
services or instruction your child will receive to address his or her
specific needs. (More information about special education and the IEP
process is available by contacting NICHCY.) Classroom accommodations are
also possible and can help a student compensate for his or her learning
disability. Accommodations can include:

Taped textbooks available through Recording for the Blind (see the
description of RFB under "Organizations" at the end of this briefing
paper);
Extended time on tests;
Tutoring;
Use of a notetaker, for students who have trouble listening in class and
taking notes;
Use of a scribe during test taking, for students who have trouble writing
but who can express their answers verbally to the scribe, who writes down
the responses;
Use of a reader during test taking, for students who have trouble reading
test questions;
Tape recording of class lectures; and
Testing in a quiet place, for students who are easily distracted.

The suggestions presented in the remainder of this article focus upon what
parents can do to help a child with a learning disability learn and
function within the home.

Learn more about learning disabilities. This information can help you
understand that your child does not learn in the same way as other people
do. Find out as much as you can about the problems your child has with
learning, what types of learning tasks will be hard for your child, what
sources of help are available, and what you can do to make life and
learning easier for your child. You can find the information you need by
reading many of the publications listed at the end of this document, or by
contacting the national organizations that are listed.

Become an unobtrusive detective. Look for clues that can tell you how your
child learns best. Does he or she learn best through looking, listening, or
touching? What is your child's weakest approach to learning? Also pay
attention to your child's interests, talents, and skills. All this
information can be of great help in motivating and fostering your child's
learning.

Encourage your child to develop his or her special talent. What is your
child good at? What does he or she especially enjoy? Encouraging your child
to pursue areas of talent lets him or her experience success and discover a
place to shine.
_________________________________________________

ADULTS WITH READING OR LEARNING PROBLEMS

Adults who have trouble reading or learning usually have had these problems
since they were children. Their problems may stem from having a learning
disability that went undetected or untreated as a child. If an adult has a
learning disability, he or she will experience many of the difficulties
described in Dr. Larry Silver's article about learning disabilities in
children. The difference for adults who have learning problems is that they
no longer spend their day in school and cannot turn to the public school
system for evaluation and special instruction. They may not know why they
have trouble learning, and don't know where to go to find out.

Help is available. It's important, however, to know what is causing the
adult's problem with reading or learning. Knowing the reason makes it
possible for the individual to get the kind of help he or she needs. The
problem may arise because the person has a learning disability. If so, then
the person needs to work with instructors who know about learning
disabilities. He or she needs to receive instruction designed for
individuals with learning disabilities. But not all reading or learning
problems are caused by learning disabilities. Perhaps as a child the person
did not get enough basic instruction to build the foundation that leads to
skilled reading and learning. Becoming involved in a literacy program might
meet this person's needs.

The first step, then, is to find out if the learning problems are caused by
the presence of a learning disability. A thorough assessment can give clues
as to whether or not a learning disability exists and can pinpoint areas of
strength and difficulty. An overview of the diagnostic process is given on
the next page. This overview is adapted from the HEATH Resource Center's
publication called Resources for Adults with Learning Disabilities.

"The child with learning disabilities feels isolated from the parent's
culture and learns to hide her "shameful secret." And, of course, as the
child carries this secret into adulthood and begins to face adult
responsibilities, the burden of it grows and grows. Surprisingly, when the
secret is finally revealed, it turns out not to be shameful at all. Once a
person openly acknowledges having a learning disability, she finds it
possible to relax and request help and support. Only after openly
acknowledging the learning disability is the person free to work on
improving her ability to learn." (NICHCY thanks Sally L. Smith for her
permission to reprint this quote from her (1991) book, Succeeding Against
the Odds: Strategies and Insights from the Learning Disabled (p. 20).
Information on how to obtain this excellent book can be found later in this
guide.)

__________________________________________

ADULTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES:
ASSESSING THE PROBLEM

Adapted with permission from the HEATH Resource Center

When adults suspect they may have a learning disability, they often begin a
search for solutions. They may have difficulty in locating resources to
diagnose the disability. For many individuals, obtaining a diagnosis can
involve locating one or more professionals to select, perform, and
interpret diagnostic tests.

Why is Diagnostic Testing Necessary?

These tests are needed because:

- Obtaining accurate diagnostics is the first step in overcoming the
effects of a learning disability.
- Learning with a learning disability requires different learning
strategies.

What is the Diagnostic Process for Adults?

The diagnostic process for adults with learning disabilities is different
from diagnosis and testing for children. While diagnosis for children and
youth is tied to the education process, diagnosis for adults is more
directly related to problems in employment, life situations, and education.
An adult will need to find a diagnostician experienced in working with
adults and who is oriented to adult school- and work-related learning
needs. The assessment process will include a diagnosis and an evaluation to
decide on possible choices for treatment.

The diagnosis identifies the type of specific learning disability by
showing strengths and weaknesses in the way an individual learns and uses
information. Both informal and formal activities are used in this process.
For example, information may be collected about the person's life and
academic history and why there is a need for the testing. More formal
activities would include measuring learning/work style, such as visual
memory or memory for numbers.

An evaluation can then be offered, suggesting ways to overcome some of the
effects of the disability. This may include strengthening skills by working
with someone who takes into account the way the individual learns best.

Until recently, it was not widely recognized that learning disabilities
have influenced the lives of adults, especially those whose conditions were
not diagnosed during school years. It is now clear that adults should be
evaluated in a manner related to their age, experience, and career
objectives.

How Do You Find Someone to Perform the Testing?

You may be wondering how to find a professional qualified to conduct adult
assessments. Several local agencies can either perform the tests or refer
you to diagnosticians for adults within the community. Agencies to contact
for information include:

-- The public school system - Ask about Adult Education programs conducted
through the school system and the availability of testing;

-- Adult Literacy Programs or Literacy Councils - These may be listed in
your local telephone book. If not, call the national literacy organizations
listed under Organizational Resources at the end of this briefing paper and
ask what programs are available in your community;

-- Learning Disability Association in your area, often listed in the
telephone book with the name of the city or county first;

-- Counseling or Study Skills Centers at a local community college;

-- Guidance Counselors in high school;

-- Orton Dyslexia Society (see description listed under Organizational
Resources);

-- Special Education Programs at a local public school or university; and

-- Vocational Rehabilitation Agency in your state or county.

These organizations or individuals may also be able to put you in touch
with an educational therapist or learning specialist in private practice
who can perform and interpret the tests you need.

Questions to Ask Evaluators

- Have you tested many adults with learning disabilities?

- What is the cost of the testing? What does this cost cover?

- Can insurance cover the costs? Are there other funding sources? Can a
payment program be worked out?

- How long does the testing take?

- Will there be a written report of the assessment? Will I be able to meet
with you to discuss the results?

- Will our discussion give me information regarding why I am having trouble
with my school, job, or life at home?

- Will you also give me ideas on how to improve (remediate) my areas of
disability and how to get around (compensate for) my disabilities?

- Will the report make recommendations about where to go for immediate
help?

- If there are additional questions, are you available for more
consultation? If so, what are the charges?

(This overview of the diagnostic process has been adapted from the HEATH
Resource Center's publication called Resources for Adults with Learning
Disabilities (1989; 1991). You can obtain a free copy of this publication
by contacting the HEATH Resource Center, American Council on Education, One
Dupont Circle, Suite 800, Washington, DC 20036-1192. NICHCY thanks Rhona
Hartman, Director of HEATH, for her permission to adapt and reprint this
material.)
________________________________________

FYI: Information Resources from NICHCY's Database

The following information was selected from numerous resources abstracted
in NICHCY's database. If you know of a group which provides information
about reading problems or learning disabilities to families, professionals,
or the general public, or which develops materials in this area, please
send this information to NICHCY for our resource collection and database.
We will appreciate this information and will share it with others who
request it.

You may be able to obtain many of the resources listed below through your
local library. Whenever possible, we have included the publisher's address
in case the publication is not available in your area. Please note that the
prices of materials and the addresses of the publishers and organizations
are subject to change without prior notice. If you are interested in
obtaining a resource listed in this document, it is a good idea to contact
the publisher or organization and obtain information on ordering, payment
procedures, and shipping and handling charged.

Additional publications and information are also available from the
clearinghouses and national organizations listed. If you experience
difficulty in locating these documents or organizations, or if you would
like additional assistance, please contact NICHCY. Finally, you may find
NICHCY's State Resource Sheet for your state or territory helpful in
contacting other resources of information.

Readings for Families

Anderson, W., Chitwood, S., & Hayden, D. (1990). Negotiating the special
education maze: A guide for parents and teachers. Rockville, MD: Woodbine
House. (Available from Woodbine House, 6510 Bells Mill Road, Bethesda, MD
20817. Telephone: 1-800-843-7323 (outside DC area); (301) 897-3570 (in DC
area).

Armstrong, T. (1987). In their own way: Discovering and encouraging your
child's personal learning style. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc.
(Available from Putnam Publishing, 390 Murray Hill Parkway, East
Rutherford, NJ 07073. Telephone: 1-800-631-8571.)

Council for Exceptional Children/ERIC. (1990). Gifted but LD: A puzzling
paradox. Reston, VA: Author. (Available from the ERIC Clearinghouse on
Disabilities and Gifted Education, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA
22091. Telephone: 1-800-328-0272. Ask for Publication E479.)

Dunn, K.B., & Dunn, A.B. (1993). Trouble with school: A family story about
learning disabilities. Rockville, MD: Woodbine House. (For children in
grades 1-5, available from Woodbine House, at the address above.)

Fisher, G., & Cummings, R. (1993). The survival guide for teenagers with LD
(learning differences). Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit. (Available from Free
Spirit Publishing, 400 First Avenue N., Suite 616, Minneapolis, MN
55401-1730. Telephone: 1-800-735-7323.)

Fowler, M.C. (1994, Revised). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
NICHCY Briefing Paper, 1-16. (Available from NICHCY, P.O. Box 1492,
Washington, DC 20013. Telephone: 1-800-695-0285.)

Gehret, J. (1990). Learning disabilities and the don't-give-up kid (2nd
ed.). Fairport, NY: Verbal Images Press. [Available from Verbal Images
Press, 19 Foxhill Drive, Fairport, NY 14450. Phone orders: (716) 377-3807.]

Lab School of Washington. (1993). Issues of parenting children with
learning disabilities (audiotape series of 12 lectures). Washington, DC
Author. (Available from Lab School, 4759 Reservoir Road, N.W., Washington,
DC 20007. Telephone: (202) 965-6600.)

Levinson, H.N., & Sanders, A. (1991). The upside down kids: Helping
dyslexic children understand themselves and their disorder. New York: M.
Evans. (Available from National Book Network, 4720 A Boston Way, Lanham, MD
20706-4310. Telephone: 1-800-462-6420.)

Silver, L. (1991). The misunderstood child: A guide for parents of children
with learning disabilities (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. (Available
from McGraw Hill/TAB Books, 860 Taylor Station Road, Blacklick, OH 43004.
Telephone: 1-800-822-8158.)

Smith, S.L. (1981). No easy answers: The learning disabled child. New York:
Bantam. (Available from Bantam, 2451 S. Wolf Road, Des Plaines, IL 60018.
Telephone: 1-800-323-9872.)

Smith, S.L. (1991). Succeeding against the odds: Strategies and insights
from the learning disabled. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. (Available
from Putnam Publishing, 390 Murray Hill Parkway, East Rutherford, NJ 07073.
Telephone: 1-800-631-8571. Also available on cassette tape through the loan
program of Recording for the Blind (RFB) in Princeton, NJ. For information
about how to quality to borrow the book on tape, see the description of
"Recording for the Blind" in the Organizational Resources below.)

Wallbrown, F.H., & Wallbrown, J.D. (1990). So your child has a learning
problem: What now? (2nd ed.). Brandon, VT: CPPC. (Available from CPPC, 4
Conant Square, Brandon, VT 05733. Telephone: 1-800-433-8234.)

Readings for Adults

American Council on Education. (1992). GED test accommodations for
candidates with specific learning disabilities. Washington, DC: Author.
(Available from GED Testing Fulfillment Service, P.O. Box 261, Annapolis
Junction, MD 20701. Telephone: (301) 604-9073.)

Cordoni, B. (1990). Living with a learning disability (rev. ed.).
Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. (Available from
Southern Illinois University Press, P.O. Box 3697, Carbondale, IL 62902.
Telephone: (618) 453-2281.)

Council for Exceptional Children/ERIC. (1988). Stress management for the
learning disabled. Reston, VA: Author. (Available from the ERIC
Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, 1920 Association Drive,
Reston, VA 22091. Telephone: 1-800-328-0272. Ask for Publication Number
E452.)

Gerber, P.J., & Reiff, H.B. (1991). Speaking for themselves: Ethnographic
interviews with adults with learning disabilities. Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan Press. (Available from the University of Michigan
Press, P.O. Box 1104, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1104. Telephone: (313) 764-4392.)

Hayes, M.L. (1993). You don't outgrow it: Living with learning
disabilities. Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications. (Available from
Academic Therapy Publications, 20 Commercial Boulevard, Novato, CA
94949-6191. Telephone: 1-800-422-7249.)

HEATH Resource Center and the National Adult Literacy and Learning
Disabilities Center. (1994). National resources for adults with learning
disabilities. Washington, DC: Authors. (Available from HEATH Resource
Center at address in organizational resources, or the National ALLD Center,
1875 Connecticut Avenue N.W., 8th Floor, Washington, DC 20009.)

Latham, P.S., & Latham, P.H. (1994). Attention deficit disorder and
learning disabilities in the workplace: A guide for success. Washington,
DC: JKL Communcations. (Available from JKL Communications, P.O. Box 40157,
Washington, DC 20016. Telephone: (202) 223-5097. Two related videos are
also available.)

Murphy, S.T. (1992). On being LD: Perspectives and strategies of young
adults. Port Chester, NY: National Professional Resources. (Available from
NPR, 25 S. Regent Street, Port Chester, NY 10573. Telephone:
1-800-453-7461.)

Nolting, P. (1991). Winning at math: Your guide to learning mathematics
through successful study skills. Pompano Beach, FL: Academic Success Press.
(Available from Academic Success Press, P.O. Box 25002, Box 132, Bradenton,
FL 34206. Telephone: (813) 359-2819.)

Smith, S.L. (1991). Succeeding against the odds: Strategies and insights
from the learning disabled. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. (Available
in print from Putnam Publishing, 390 Murray Hill Parkway, East Rutherford,
NJ 07073. Telephone: 1-800-631-8571. Also available on cassette tape
through the loan program of Recording for the Blind (RFB) in Princeton, NJ.
For information about how to quality to borrow the book on tape, see the
description of "Recording for the Blind" in the Organizational Resources
below.)

Readings for Educators and Other Service Providers

Council for Exceptional Children. (n.d.). Inclusion: What does it mean for
students with learning disabilities? Reston, VA: Author. (Available from
the Division on Learning Disabilities, CEC, 1920 Association Drive, Reston,
VA 22091. Telephone: 1-800-CEC-READ. Ask for Publication D421.)

Council for Exceptional Children/ERIC. (1992). Learning disabilities.
Reston, VA: Author. (Available from ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and
Gifted Education, 1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091. Telephone:
1-800-328-0272. Ask for Publication E516.)

Council for Exceptional Children/ERIC. (1994, August). Readings about
children and youth with learning disabilities. Reston, VA: Author.
Available from the ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education,
at the address above. Ask for Publication E465R.)

Gerber, A. (1993). Language-related learning disabilities: Their nature and
treatment. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes,
P.O. Box 10624, Baltimore, MD 21285. Telephone: 1-800-638-3775.)

Harwell, J.M. (1993). Ready-to-use learning disabilities activity kit. Port
Chester, NY: National Professional Resources. (Available from NPR, at the
address above.)

Jordan, N.C., & Goldsmith-Phillips, J. (Eds.). (1994). Learning
disabilities: New directions for assessment and intervention. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon. (Available from Order Processing Center, P.O. Box 11071, Des
Moines, IA 50336-1071. Telephone: 1-800-947-7700.)

Latham, P.S., & Latham, P.H. (1993). Learning disabilities and the law.
Washington, DC: JKL Communications. (Available from JKL Communications,
P.O. Box 40157, Washington, DC 20016. Telephone: (202) 223-5097.)

Lyon, G.R. (Ed.). (1994). Frames of reference for the assessment of
learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues. Baltimore, MD: Paul
H. Brookes. (Available from Paul H. Brookes Publishing, at the address
above.)

Lyon, G.R., Gray, D.B., Kavanagh, J.F., & Krasnegor, N.A. (Eds.). (1993).
Better understanding learning disabilities: New views from research and
their implications for education and public policies. Baltimore, MD: Paul
H. Brookes.

Mercer, C.D., & Mercer, A.R. (1993). Teaching students with learning
problems (4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill. (Available from Prentice Hall,
Order Processing Center, P.O. Box 11071, Des Moines, IA 50336-1071.
Telephone: 1-800-947-7700.)

Meltzer, L.J. (Ed.). (1993). Strategy assessment and instruction for
students with learning disabilities: From theory to practice. Austin, TX:
Pro-Ed. (Available from Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX
78757. Telephone: (512) 451-3246.)

Nolting, P. (1991). Math and the learning disabled student: A practical
guide for accommodations. Pompano Beach, FL: Academic Success Press.
(Available from Academic Success Press, at address above.)

Nolting, P. (1993). Math and students with learning disabilities: A
practical guide to course substitutions. Pompano Beach, FL: Academic
Success Press. (Available from Academic Success Press, at address above.)

Silver, L.B. (1989). The assessment of learning disabilities: Preschool
through adulthood. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. (Available from Pro-Ed, at address
above.)

Smith, S.L. (1981). No easy answers: The learning disabled child. New York:
Bantam. (Available from Bantam, at address listed under "Readings for
Families.")

Smith, S.L. (1991). Succeeding against the odds: Strategies and insights
from the learning disabled. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. (Available
from Putnam Publishing, at address listed under "Readings for Adults." Also
available on cassette tape through the loan program of Recording for the
Blind (RFB) in Princeton, NJ. For information about how to qualify to
borrow the book on tape, see the description of "Recording for the Blind"
in the Organizational Resources below.)

Swanson, H.L. (Ed.). (1991). Handbook on the assessment of learning
disabilities: Theory, research, and practice. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
(Available from Pro-Ed, at address above.)

Vogel, S.A. (Ed.). (1992). Educational alternatives for students with
learning disabilities. New York: Springer-Verlag. (Available from
Springer-Verlag, 333 Meadowlands Parkway, Secaucus, NJ 07094. Telephone:
1-800-777-4643.)

ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES

This section lists organizations that can be of help to parents who have a
child with a reading problem or learning disability, to adults who would
like to improve their reading or learning skills, and to educators and
other professionals who work with students who are having difficulty
learning. Some organizations provide information and referral that is best
suited for parents. Others work primarily with adults with learning
disabilities. Still others provide information targeted for teachers and
other service providers. Under each name and address, you will see the line
"Resource Useful To," followed by the groups (parents, adults, or
educators) who will find this organization most helpful.

National Clearinghouses and Government and State Agencies---

Division of Adult Education and Literacy Clearinghouse
U.S. Department of Education
400 Maryland Avenue S.W.
Washington, DC 20202-7240
Telephone: (202) 205-9996

Resource Useful To: Adults; Educators (working with adults)

This Clearinghouse can provide the adult education community with resources
in adult education, including putting adults in contact with the Office of
Adult Education within their state. Fact sheets, bibliographies,
directories, and other publications are available related to adults who
have special learning needs.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education
Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 22091-1589
Telephone: 1-800-328-0272; (703) 620-3660

Resource Useful To: Parents; Educators (of school-age children) This ERIC
Clearinghouse makes available numerous publications on learning
disabilities, including Readings about Children and Youth with Learning
Disabilities (Digest Number E465R).

ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and
Communication (ERIC/REC)
Indiana University, Smith Research Center
2805 East 10th Street, Suite 150
Bloomington, Indiana 47408-2698
Telephone: 1-800-759-4723; (812) 855-5847

Resource Useful To: Parents; Adults; Educators

The Clearinghouse is concerned with the acquisition of functional
competence in reading, writing, speaking, and listening at all educational
levels and in all social contexts. The Clearinghouse makes available
bibliographies on a variety of reading topics, including learning
disabilities and reading.

An offshoot of the Clearinghouse is the Family Literacy Center, whose
purpose is to encourage parents to participate in their children's academic
development while simultaneously improving their own literacy. An audio
journal called Parents and Children Together is published periodically by
the Family Literacy Center. Each issue is filled with suggestions for
involving children in reading, practical reading activities that parents
can do with their children, recommendations for books to read and, of
course, a read-along story accompanied by a cassette tape. A free sample of
this material is available upon request.

HEATH Resource Center
One Dupont Circle, Suite 800
Washington, DC 20036-1193
Telephone: 1-800-544-3284

Resource Useful To: Parents (of young LD adults); Adults

HEATH is a national clearinghouse on postsecondary education for
individuals with disabilities. HEATH distributes a publication called
Resources for Adults with Learning Disabilities and has information on how
and where adults with learning disabilities can get training after high
school. This includes information about vocational preparation programs,
adult education, and college.

National Adult Literacy and Learning Disabilities Center
Academy for Educational Development
1875 Connecticut Avenue N.W., Suite 800
Washington, DC 20009-1202
Telephone: (202) 884-8185

The Center is a national resource for information exchange regarding
learning disabilities and their impact on the provision of literacy
services. A main function of the Center is to serve as a national exchange
network for the sharing of information, research, and resources regarding
the relationship between adult literacy and learning disabilities.

National Clearinghouse on Literacy Education (NCLE)
Center for Applied Linguistics
1118 22nd Street N.W.
Washington, DC 20037
Telephone: (202) 429-9292, extension 200

Resource Useful To: Educators (of adults with limited English proficiency)

NCLE is the only national clearinghouse for adult English as a second
language (ESL) and literacy information. NCLE collects, analyzes, and
abstracts documents on literacy education for adults with limited English
proficiency (LEP) and out-of-school youth. Included are research reports,
instructional and assessment materials, program descriptions and
evaluations, and teacher/tutor training guides. Educators can call to find
out resources available for working with LEP adults and out-of-school youth
with literacy problems. NCLE maintains a resource center that includes a
database of over 5,000 individuals and literacy programs working with LEP
adults.

National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities
(NICHCY)
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20013-1492
1-800-695-0285 (Voice/TT)
E-mail: nichcy@aed.org
URL: http://www.nichcy.org

Resource Useful To: Parents; Educators

NICHCY can provide parents with information about special education and the
rights children and youth with disabilities have under the law. NICHCY can
also provide parents and others with a State Resource Sheet, useful for
identifying resources within their state. This includes names, addresses,
and telephone numbers of state agencies, disability organizations, and
parent groups serving individuals with disabilities and their families. A
variety of other publications on disability issues is available free of
charge. A Publications List is available upon request.

National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS)
Library of Congress
1291 Taylor Street N.W.
Washington, DC 20542
Telephone: (202) 707-5100

Resource Useful To: Parents; Adults

Many individuals with learning disabilities may be able to borrow talking
books (books on tape) from NLS, but they must first establish their
eligibility for the program. Call or write NLS and ask for an application
form for reading disabilities and Talking Books and Reading Disabilities, a
factsheet outlining the eligibility requirements for persons with learning
disabilities. Once eligibility is established, the person can borrow, on
tape, most of the same books that public libraries make available in print.

State Department of Education
Consult your local telephone directory for
the office in your state.

Resource Useful To: Adults; Educators

The State Department of Education in each state should have a department
concerned with adult education or literacy. This office can usually refer
adult callers to adult education or literacy programs within their
community. Technical assistance, information, and referral may be available
to educators working with school-age children with learning disabilities or
with adults with literacy concerns.

Vocational Rehabilitation Office
Consult your local telephone directory
for the office in your vicinity.

Resource Useful To: Adults

Through the Vocational Rehabilitation system, adults with learning
disabilities may be able to get information and referral. Services may also
be available, such as literacy and job training.

National Learning Disabilities Organizations ---

Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD)
P.O. Box 40303
Overland Park, KS 66204
Telephone: (913) 492-8755

Resource Useful To: Educators

The Council for Learning Disabilities provides services to professionals
who work with individuals with learning disabilities. Members include
educators, diagnosticians, psychologists, physicians, optometrists, and
speech, occupational, and physical therapists. All members receive the
Learning Disability Quarterly, as well as the LD Forum, a teacher-oriented
newsletter.

Division for Learning Disabilities
Council for Exceptional Children
1920 Association Drive
Reston, VA 22091
Telephone: (703) 620-3660

Resource Useful To: Educators

The Division for Learning Disabilities is one of the many special
organizations within the Council for Exceptional Children. DLD publishes
its own journal (Learning Disabilities Research and Practice) and
newsletter. Teachers and other service providers can contact DLD about
learning disabilities, publications, and membership.

Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA)
4156 Library Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15234
Telephone: (412) 341-1515

Useful Resource for: Parents; Adults; Educators

The Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) has 50 state
affiliates with more than 775 local chapters. The national office has a
resource center of over 500 publications for sale. It also operates a film
rental service. Call the national LDA office to receive a free information
packet and referral to the nearest local chapter.

National Center for Learning Disabilities
381 Park Avenue South, Suite 1420
New York, NY 10016
Telephone: (212) 545-7510

Resource Useful To: Parents; Educators

The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) is a national,
not-for-profit organization committed to improving the lives of millions of
Americans affected by learning disabilities. Services include: national
information and referral; raising public awareness and understanding;
educational programs; and legislative advocacy. NCLD provides educational
tools to heighten understanding of learning disabilities, including: the
annual publication called THEIR WORLD and the video kit "We Can Learn";
regular newsletters; informative articles; and specific state-by-state
resource listings (e.g., schools and diagnostic clinics). Memberships are
available to individuals and institutions.

Orton Dyslexia Society
Chester Building, Suite 382
8600 LaSalle Road
Baltimore, MD 21204
Telephone: (800) 222-3123; (410) 296-0232

Resource Useful To: Parents; Adults (with dyslexia); Educators

The Orton Dyslexia Society is the only national nonprofit organization
solely concerned with dyslexia. The Society provides a packet of basic
information called "Basic Facts about Dsylexia: What Everyone Should Know."
Since it is a nonprofit organization, the Society must change a $5.00 fee
for producing, handling, and mailing this information. Two other booklets
that are available in the Orton Emeritus Series are "Doctors Ask Questions
about Dyslexia" and "The Other Sixteen Hours: Social and Emotional Problems
of Dyslexia."

The Society has over 40 branches across the country and in Canada and
Israel which offer programs in information and referral, government
affairs, education, research, and publications. Persons seeking resources,
such as diagnosticians, educational therapists, tutors, and teacher
trainers may call the Society for the names of service providers in their
zip-code area.

The Society also publishes a scholarly journal, Annals of Dyslexia, and a
quarterly newsletter, Perspectives on Dyslexia. Also available are two
publications dealing with language and teacher education and several
collections of papers by noted experts in the field of dyslexia.

Recording for the Blind (RFB)
The Anne T. Macdonald Center
20 Roszel Road
Princeton, NJ 08540
Telephone: (609) 452-0606

Resource Useful To: Individuals (beyond the fourth grade) with learning
disabilities who cannot read standard print material

Recording for the Blind (RFB) is a nonprofit service organization that
provides educational and professional books in accessible media to people
with print disabilities. RFB has an extensive free library of books on
audiocassette, covering all subjects and all academic levels from fourth
grade through postgraduate studies. An additional service is E-text --
books on computer disk, which are available for purchase. The E-text
collection presently contains primarily computer titles.

RFB's services are available to persons with a verified visual, physical,
or specific learning disability that substantially limits reading. To
become a lifetime member of RFB, you must complete an application for
service (which contains a "disability verification" and "certification")
and include a one-time nominal registration fee. An application form is
available from RFB's Customer Services Department (1-800-221-4792).

National Literacy Organizations ---

Laubach Literacy Action (LLA)
P.O. Box 131
Syracuse, NY 13210
Telephone: (315) 422-9121

Resource Useful To: Adults; Educators

LLA is the largest network of adult literacy programs in the United States.
The programs provide literacy instruction through the use of trained
volunteers. Adults interested in improving their reading can call to find
out if an affiliate provides instruction in or near their community.
Educators can contact the New Readers Press, a partner of LLA, for
materials they can use in literacy, adult basic education, and work force
literacy programs. New Readers Press's telephone number is: 1-800-448-8878.

Literacy Volunteers of America
5795 Widewaters Parkway
Syracuse, NY 13214
Telephone: (315) 445-8000

Resource Useful To: Adults

This is a non-profit organization which combats illiteracy through a
network of community volunteer literacy programs. These affiliates provide
individualized student-centered instruction in both basic literacy and
English as a Second Language (ESL) for adults and teens. More than 1000,000
tutors and students are involved in nearly 450 programs located in 40
states.

National Contact Hotline
Contact Center, Inc.
P.O. Box 81826
Lincoln, NE 68501-1826
Telephone: (800) 228-8813; (800) 552-9097 for TDD

Resource Useful to: Adults

Contact Center, Inc., a 25-year old information and referral agency,
operates this national hotline to help individuals with literacy problems.
This organization maintains a database of over 12,000 literacy programs
across the country. The hotline operates seven days a week, 24 hours a day
and is staffed with Spanish/English bilingual operators on each shift. Call
the hotline to get information about literacy providers in your community.
Additional, follow-up information will also be sent through the mail.

________________________________________________________________

This Briefing Paper was made possible through the generosity of Robert
Halmi, Sr., Executive Producer of "The Secret," a Kraft General Foods
Premier Movie which aired on CBS-TV in 1992 and again in 1994. A production
of RHI Entertainment, inc., "The Secret" is the story of a grandfather and
grandson who both have dyslexia, a learning disability that affects one in
every seven people. NICHCY hopes that, through Mr. Halmi's generosity,
individuals who have problems with reading, and with learning in general,
can use this Briefing Paper to locate the many resources available to
address their special learning needs.

NICHCY thanks our Project Officer, Dr. Sara Conlon, at the Office of
Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education, for her time in
reading and reviewing this document. We also thank the following
individuals for their contributions: Dr. Larry Silver and the Learning
Disabilities Association of Montgomery County, Inc., of Maryland, for
permission to reprint Dr. Silver's article; Sally L. Smith, Founder and
Director of the Lab School of Washington, DC, for her permission to reprint
material from her book; Rhona Hartman of the HEATH Resource Center for
permission to adapt and reprint material from HEATH; and Neil Sturomski,
for his timely review and suggestions. NICHCY also thanks all the helpful
individuals who provided and verified the information about the various
organizations mentioned in this document. Finally, the Editor would like to
thank Eve Robins, Information Specialist at NICHCY, for her patience and
many valuable suggestions.

Project Director: Suzanne Ripley
Editor: Lisa Kupper

This fact sheet is made possible through Cooperative Agreement #H030A30003
between the Academy for Educational Development and the Office of Special
Education Programs. The contents of this publication do not necessarily
reflect the views or policies of the Department of Education, nor does
mention of trade names, commercial products or organizations imply
endorsement by the U. S. Government.

The Academy for Educational Development, founded in 1961, is an
independent, nonprofit service organization committed to addressing human
development needs in the United States and throughout the World. In
partnership with its clients, the Academy seeks to meet today's social,
economic, and environmental challenges through education and human resource
development; to apply state-of-the-art education, training, research,
technology, management, behavioral analysis, and social marketing
techniques to solve problems; and to improve knowledge and skills
throughout the world as the most effective means for stimulating growth,
reducing poverty, and promoting democratic and humanitarian ideals.

Teach through your child's areas of strength. For example, he or she may
have great difficulty reading for information but readily understand when
listening. Take advantage of that strength. Rather than force reading,
which will present your child with a failure situation, let your child
learn new information by listening to a book on tape or watching a
videotape.

Respect and challenge your child's natural intelligence. He or she may have
trouble reading or writing, but that doesn't mean learning can't take place
in many other ways. Most children with learning disabilities have average
or above average intelligence that can be engaged and challenged through
using a multisensory approach. Taste, touch, seeing, hearing, and moving
are valuable ways of gathering information.

Remember that mistakes don't equal failure. Your child will have the
tendency to see his or her mistakes as huge failures. You can model,
through good-humored acceptance of your own mistakes, that mistakes can be
useful. They can lead to new solutions. They are not the end of the world.
When your child sees you taking this approach to mistakes -- your own and
the mistakes of others -- he or she can learn to view his or her mistakes
in the same light.

Recognize that there may be some things your child won't be able to do or
will have lifelong trouble doing. Help your child to understand that this
doesn't mean he or she is a failure. After all, everyone has something they
can't do. Capitalize on the things your child can do.

Be aware that struggling with your child over reading, writing, and
homework can draw you into an adversarial position with your child. The two
of you will end up angry and frustrated with each other, which sends the
message to your child that, yet again, he or she has failed. You can
contribute positively to your child's schooling by participating actively
in the development of your child's Individualized Education Program (IEP)
and by sharing with the school the special insights about your child that
only you as a parent have.

Use television creatively. Television, or videos, can be a good medium for
learning. If the child is helped to use it properly, it is not a waste of
time. For example, your child can learn to focus, sustain attention, listen
carefully, increase vocabulary, and see how the parts fit together to make
a whole. You can augment learning by asking questions about what was seen.
What happened first? Then what happened? How did the story end? Such
questions encourage learning of sequence, an area that causes trouble for
many LD children. Be patient, though. Because your child does not see or
interpret the world in the same way you do, progress may be slow.

Make sure books are at your child's reading level. Most children with
learning disabilities will be reading below grade level. To experience
success at reading, then, it's important that they have books to read that
are on their reading level (rather than their age level). Foster reading by
finding books on topics of interest to your child or by reading to him.
Also let your child choose his or her own books to read.
 

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